Legal Rational Authority Essay

Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic authority) is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. The majority of the modern states of the twentieth century are rational-legal authorities, according to those who use this form of classification Authority Types Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity. It does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In fact, Weber states: â€Å"The creation of new law opposite traditional norms is deemed impossible in principle.† Traditional authority is typically embodied in feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal structure, â€Å"the servants are completely and personally dependent upon the lord†, while in an estate system (i.e. feudalism), â€Å"the servants are not personal servants of the lord but independent men† (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system of authority does not change or evolve. Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. Weber saw a charismatic leader as the head of a new social movement, and one instilled with divine or supernatural powers, such as a religious prophet. Weber seemed to favor charismatic authority, and spent a good deal of time discussing it. In a study of charisma and religion, Riesebrodt argues that Weber also thought charisma played a strong – if not integral – role in traditional authority systems. Thus, Weber’s favor for charismatic authority was particularly strong, especially in focusing on what happened to it with the death or decliAne of a charismatic leader. Charismatic authority is â€Å"routinized† in a number of ways according to Weber: orders are traditionalized, the staff or followers change into legal or â€Å"estate-like† (traditional) staff, or the meaning of charisma itself may undergo change. Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience is not given to a  specific individual leader – whether traditional or charismatic – but a set of uniform principles. Weber thought the best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy (political or economic). This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations. In fact, Weber stated that the â€Å"development of the modern state is identical indeed with that of modern officialdom and bureaucratic organizations just as the development of modern capitalism is identical with the increasing bureaucratization of economic enterprise. Inter-relationships Weber’s theory of authority is very rich and intricate. Weber and others have detailed many interesting relationships and processes occurring between the types. Blau’s â€Å"Critical Remarks on Weber’s Theory of Authority† explains two of these in particular, components that either strengthen or weaken an authority type in regards to another. The three authority types may be re-enforced by traits that differentiate them from other types. Traditional authority is impersonal (unlike charisma) and non-rational (unlike legal-rational). Charismatic authority is dynamic (unlike tradition) and non-rational (again, unlike legal-rational). Finally, legal-rational authority is dynamic (unlike tradition) and impersonal (unlike charisma). Conversely, Blau means to say that traditional is un-dynamic, charisma is personal, and legal-rational is rational. The likelihood of retaining a particular type of authority may depend on the ability of that authority system to retain the traits that make it unique and reject the traits that make it more conducive to another authority type. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY IS RATIONAL In charismatic authority Weber considers charisma to be a driving and creative force which surges through traditional authority and established rules. The sole basis of charismatic authority is the recognition or acceptance of the claims of the leader by the followers. While it is irrational, in that it is not calculable or systematic, it can be revolutionary, breaking traditional rule and can even challenge legal authority. Weber notes that traditional authority is irrational. It blocks the development of rational or legal forms of authority or acts as a barrier to the development of more rational or legal forms of authority characteristic of western societies. traditional authority a means by which inequality is created and preserved. Where no challenge to the authority of the traditional leader or group is made, then the leader is likely to remain dominant. Legal-rational authority is a particular system containing humans, like e.g. organizations, there is some authority acting as a stabilizing factor making e.g. employees follow the directions of the leaders. Authority helps to prevent anarchy, and help to define a clear hierarchy of decision-making. A clear hierarchy will potentially lead to an effective organization, consisting of strong and legitimate authority relations between leaders and followers. This authority is only granted leaders if followers find his or her authority legitimate. This illustrates the fictitious believe that leaders automatically posses authority. Instead, leaders are given authority by their followers to e.g. inspire, control and command. If authority is to be seen legitimate, the relation between authority and followers must be balanced, so that the authority relation is accepted by the followers. Legal-Rational authority rests on the belief in the â€Å"legality† of formal rules and hierarchies, and in the right of those elevated in the hierarchy to posses authority and issue commands. This type of authority is often seen as legitimate in bureaucratic systems, which enables impersonal, specific and formal structures of modern companies. People will hence find this type of authority legitimate, if the authority is distributed to leaders based on e.g. rationality and capability. Particular authority types can lose their power to – and thus transition into – other types by some of the following ways. Revolutionary ideals can be advocated by a charismatic leader or the rational pursuit of ends via abstract formal principles can both weaken traditional authority. Revolutionary charismatic movements can be crystallized into a traditional order or bureaucratized into a rational formal organization. Finally, the irrational forces and powers of tradition In traditional authority, the  legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition. Charismatic authority is legitimized by the personality and leadership qualities of the ruling individual. Finally, rational-legal authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and legality. Legal rationality and legitimacy Under rational-legal authority, legitimacy is seen as coming from a legal order and the laws that have been enacted in it. Weber defined legal order as a system where the rules are enacted and obeyed as legitimate because they are in line with other laws on how they can be enacted and how they should be obeyed. Further, they are enforced by a government that monopolizes their enactment and the legitimate use of physical force. The Legal Mode of Authority (Legitimate Domination) This is Weber’s typology of the modes of legitimate domination. The actors can ascribe legitimate validity to an order in a variety of ways. The order can be recognized as legitimate, first, by virtue of tradition, valid is that which has always been. Second, the order may be treated as legitimate by virtue of affectual,especially emotional, faith; this situation occurs especially in the case of the newly revealed or the exemplary. Third, the order may be treated as legitimate by virtue of value rational faith: valid is that which has been deduced as absolutely demanded. Fourth, legitimacy can be ascribed to an order by virtue of positive enactment of recognized legality. Such legality can be recognized as legitimate either because the enactment has been agreed upon by all those who are concerned; or by virtue of imposition by a domination of human beings over human beings which is treated as legitimate and meets with acquiescence. Orders based on tradition, affect, and value rationality can be reinforced by enacted law. Weber states from another source that what distinguishes legal rational authority, from charismatic authority and traditional authority on the one hand and leadership, persuasion and influence on the other hand, is legitimacy. Superiors feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientist agree that authority is but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting  of authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged, not just by citizens, but by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his cabinet, military leaders and in the long run, the administration and political apparatus of the entire society. Emergence of the modern state Rational-legal authority is rational among the three types of authority in the sense that it brought about the Emergence of the modern state. Weber wrote that the modern state based on rational-legal authority emerged from the patrimonial and feudal struggle for power .The prerequisites for the modern Western state are: 1.monopolization by central authority of the means of administration and control based on a centralized and stable system of taxation and use of physical force 2.monopolization of legislative 3.organization of an officialdom, dependent upon the central authority Weber argued that some of those attributes have existed in various time or places, but together they existed only in Occidental civilization. The conditions that favored this were emergence of rational-legal rationality (various status groups in the Occident promoted that emergence) emergence of modern officialdom (bureaucracy), which required 1.development of the money economy, where officials are compensated in money instead of kind (usually land grants) 2.quantitative and qualitative expansion of administrative tasks 3.centralisation and increased efficiency of administration. Modern state According to Max Weber, a modern state exists where a political community has: * an administrative and legal order that has been created and can be changed by legislation that also determines its role * binding authority over citizens and actions in its jurisdiction * the right to legitimately use the physical force in its jurisdiction An important attribute of Weber’s definition of a modern state was that it is a bureaucracy. The vast majority of the modern states from the 20th century onward fall under the rational-legal authority category Bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is â€Å"the existence of a specialized administrative staff†.  According to Weber, beaucracy is a particular type of administrative structure developed through rational-legal authority. Weber noted that bureaucracy resolves some of the shortcomings of the traditional system. His view view of bureaucracy was a system of power where leaders exercise control over others — a system based on discipline. Weber stressed that the rational-legal form was the most stable of systems for both superiors and subordinates — it’s more reliable and clear, yet allows the subordinate more independence and discretion. Subordinates ideally can challenge the decisions of their leaders by referring to the stated rules — charisma becomes less important. As a result, bureaucratic systems can handle more complex operations than traditional system. RATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM Another source reveals that legal-rational authority brings about the development of a rational legal system, there is likely to be a political system which becomes rationalized in a similar way. Associated with this are constitutions, written documents, established offices, regularized modes of representation, regular elections and political procedures. These are developed in opposition to earlier systems such as monarchies or other traditional forms, where there are no well developed set of rules. As a political or legal system develops in this rational manner, authority takes on a legal form. Those who govern or rule either have, or appear to have, a legitimate legal right to do so. Those who are subordinate within this system accept the legality of the rulers, believing they have the legitimate right to exercise power. Those with power then exercise power based on this right of legitimacy. REFERENCES * Max Weber’s Sociology in the Genealogy of the Contemporary Mode of Western Legal Thought- Duncan Kennedy * Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia- Rational-legal authority * Ashley, David and David Michael Orenstein, Sociological Theory: Classical Statements, third edition, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1995. * Cohen, Ira J., â€Å"Theories of Action and Praxis,† in Bryan S. Turner, editor, The Blackwell Companion to Social Theory, Oxford, Blackwell, 1996.. * Hadden, Richard W., Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical Tradition, Peterborough, Broadview Press, 1997. * Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill.. * Blau, P. M. (1963). â€Å"Critical remarks on Weber’s theory of authority†. The American Political Science Review, * Crass, C. (2003). Collective liberation on my mind. Montrà ©al: Kersplebedeb. * Max Weber-Traditional, Rational –Legal and Charismatic Authority –By Dana Williams

Assessment as a Process of Making Judgements of Learners Knowledge

What is an assessment? Alan Rogers (1994, p172) defines assessment as collection of data on which we base our evaluation. According to Reece and Walker (2008, p5) assessment consists of tests and observations that we, as tutor, use to determine how well the students has achieved the objectives. Geoff Petty (2004, p449) writes that â€Å"Assessment measures the breadth and depth of learning†. Assessments are used in all areas and domain of everyday life, whether formal or informal, ranging from taking a written or practical driving test to claims for income support or acquiring life insurance on-line.Assessment is used to make a specific educational decision and is the process of evaluating the extent to which participants in education have developed their knowledge, understanding and skills. Assessment, both formative and summative, plays a significant part in the learning experience as it determines progression and enables learners to demonstrate that they have achieved their desired learning outcomes. There are generally two ways of assessment, formative and summative.According to Ashcroft and Forman-Peck (1994, p54) â€Å"Assessment is generally taken to mean a judgement about the progress (formative assessment) or achievement (summative assessment) of a particular student’s learning†. Reece and Walker’s (2008, p323) distinction between formative and summative is one to satisfy the needs of the society (‘summative’ assessment) and the other type of assessment is to help in both teaching and learning (‘formative’ assessment).Formative assessment is the assessment that takes place throughout the course or programme of study and is usually carried out by the assessor during mentoring and training. It provides feedback to both the learner and the assessor on how things are going and how learning can be improved. In contrast summative assessment is assessment of learning and is often used to determine what has been learnt or achieved in terms of acquired skills, knowledge and understanding at or towards the end of a course or programme of study.Further functions of assessment in learning and development are the measurement and recording of achievement, the identification of individual learners’ needs, that the assessment reflects the required standards and performance/assessment criteria and are fit for the purpose intended and that they contribute to quality assurance and the development of best practice. There are many reasons why we assess learners. Assessments enable tutors to measure learner’s progress towards their goal. And feedback can be given to help them such as outlining their strengths and weaknesses. Read also: Principles of Good Writing by L.A. HillFeedback is used to help learners learn and improve, and is the most important aspect of formative assessment. This can be given in various ways such as written, oral, in the form of graded/marked assignment etc. When giving feedback it is good practice to bear in mind the following points. It is important to give immediate feedback if possible; turn negative comment into constructive comments such as what to improve on before the next assessment; make assessment criteria clear, accurate and available; feedback to be clear, accurate and recorded; praise learner on achievement; encourage positive attitudes and make further suggestions.Learners can be encouraged through communication of how well they are doing and what skills and knowledge they are developing. I assess my students at regular intervals. Every time I ask a question to an individual or to a class I am assessing their knowledge and understanding. When I walk round the class watching students doing their tasks, checking their printouts, I am observing and noting against a checklist of expectations in my mind.When I receive or look at a printout from a mock exam I am comparing their performance with that which I would hope for from such a group or individual at such a stage in such a course at such a level. When giving verbal feedback to my learners, I use the following words of encouragement: very good, well done, brilliant, excellent, spot on. Throughout the delivery of a course I give my students formative, diagnostic and summative assessments and feedbacks.

Demonstrative Communication Essay

â€Å"Communication is an exchange of information, verbal pr written message and is the process of sending and receiving message†. () With communication there must be a sender and a receiver for it to take place. In this paper I will provide examples how effective and ineffective demonstrative communication can be positive or negative on situations. Also I will explain how demonstrative communication involves listening and responding. Demonstrative communication is nonverbal and unwritten communication thought facial expression or body language. Effective ways for a sender and receiver to communicate in a demonstrative way would be to send the right message. Sender would want to make sure the receiver comprehends and understands the sender. For example Kinesics: â€Å"refers to the many behaviors of the body†() these would include posture, gestures, and facial expressions. To make a positive gesture one could give the sender two thumbs up letting them know they did a great job. Letting the sender know they understand the message. A negative gestures would be a frown or to raise an eyebrow. This would provide feedback to the sender letting them know you disagree. Effective communication is a two way street for the sender and receiver. Ineffective ways for sender and receiver to communicate would be if the sender was demanding or ordering the receiver for something, and persuading or lecturing them. For example, using words like â€Å"you must† this may make the receiver think you are being demanding and they may resent you. Lecturing the receiver is another negative way to communicate with them. This may cause them to feel like they are wrong. Hepatic is a powerful form of communication. This would include giving the sender a pat on the back letting them knows you understand and everything was great. A native communication result would be a slap in the face. This would lead to many problems. Demonstrative communication between the sender and receiver will be positive if the sender does not overload the receiver with to much information at one time. If the receiver provides active listening or reading, this will allow the receiver to engage in what the sender is trying to get across to them. Demonstrative communication can also be negative if the receiver has a lack of eye contact or crossing of the arms. Things like this tell the sender one may not be interested in their message they are trying to get across. Provide feedback is a part of responding and giving the sender insurances that you are listening and understood what was being said. With demonstrative communication for example, one can respond by providing feedback like, â€Å"What I’m hearing is†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This lets the sender know you are listening to the message.

Persuasive speech - why people shouldn't eat fast food Essay

Persuasive speech - why people shouldn't eat fast food - Essay Example Not only that, these foods simply do not just promise to help save time and cost, but they simply provide good taste too. These are the common reasons why fast food are widely consumed from different walks in today’s fast-paced life. Fast foods simply provide advantages that are tantamount to resuscitating an individual from a hectic schedule, financial and economic needs and preferences on foods. However, it is important to consider that together with these advantages, there are also corresponding disadvantages associated with eating fast food. These disadvantages are enough to stand as reasons why people should not eat fast food. These reasons are the following. According to Hales (149) many fast foods are high in salt, fats and calorie but with very low content of beneficial nutrients. Although a person’s body also requires salt, fats and calorie, there is only minimal amount of them which is needed by the body. For instance, the National Research Council (11) stated that the sodium requirement of the human body especially for adult ranges from 0.15 to 0.30 mg because the daily requirement per kilogram body weight is 0.002 to 0.004 mg. Fats and calories on the other hand are necessary for the right body functioning but they must be in small amounts too (Hart and Grossman 66). Let us now build the very foundation of this argument. Freedman (14) reported that there is a strong association between eating fast food and the likelihood of acquiring obesity. This is supported by the claim of Lusted (33) based on a case study in which the respondent was able to gain around 11 kg in a 30-day experiment of eating consecutively McDonald’s foods. Although this experiment would point out that obesity and fast food is a case of personal responsibility, it cannot be substantially denied that fast food can ultimately help a person gain considerable weight. After all, as stated earlier, fast foods

Should the House of Lords be Abolished Assignment

Should the House of Lords be Abolished - Assignment Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that modern democracy asserts the popular representation of values in government through elected officials as a structural characteristic. Most British people, on this basis, oppose the House of Lords as a political institution because of the power is given to royalty and hereditary legacy within the body itself. As an Angus Reid poll in 2010 showed: â€Å"In the online survey of a representative sample of 2,004 adults, three-in-ten respondents (30%) believe the UK does not need a House of Lords and want all legislation to be reviewed and authorized by the House of Commons. Two-in-five Britons (40%) think the UK needs a House of Lords, but want the people to be allowed to take part in the process to choose lords. Only nine percent of respondents think the current guidelines that call for appointed lords should not be modified. Two-thirds of respondents (66%) support holding a nationwide referendum to decide the future of the House of Lords. A clear majority of Britons (58%) supports the notion of allowing the people to directly elect their lords. Conversely, only three-in-ten (30%) are in favor of abolishing the House of Lords altogether.† Thus, the British people are calling for reforms in which politicians and not royals would be elected to the House of Lords in a manner similar to the way the U.S. Senate functions in American democracy, including elections, term limits, and â€Å"checks & balances† between the upper & lower Houses of Parliament, rather than the total abolishment of the House of Lords. The House of Lords in fundamentally undemocratic, having been instituted as a means to limit the expression of the people’s will politically when it comes into conflict with the interests of the royals in society.  

Castle Bingo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 4

Castle Bingo - Essay Example The concern is on the two types of the customer that is off line based on attending clubs and on line gamers based on internet and their web sites. The findings from the research are that Castle Bingo online web site concentrates on the information based on the club information. The current location for the main club is favored mostly especially on the by the focusing groups but their experience is expected towards the current location of the sites for the new facilities. The main concern is that the offline and online castle leisure is to focus on the effective marketing research program. Clearly, there is a feeling of the focus group members that the current contract of leisure in problem. This is perceived from the work against all the sports for all the members and the promotion including the management which is mostly concerned with the targeting group. Improving the quality of the on going centers in better location would encourage the current users on the improvement on effective marketing programs though these issues would be addressed in the management teams. Most of the people urge that the council should use its funding including the tax from the councils to provide sports and other services in order to make the marketing research effective and efficiency. The decisions of the managers in Castle Bingo are based on the benefits of the company as a whole but not on the side of the individuals. Castle leisure researches interviewed a representative samples targeting 1000 people from the city using an agreed questionnaire. The studies were concerned with 10 locations for researcher where by the sample sizes were formulated: The following analysis reefers to the total sample of 1020 including the sub groups of the sample based on the location of the interview, age and sex. This usually means that concern is on the basis of justifying the analysis of at least 50 though the

Overview of the Hospitality and Tourism Industry Essay

Overview of the Hospitality and Tourism Industry - Essay Example ges such as regulatory issues, social concerns, competitive issues, and / or demographic and geographic issues associated with managing a restaurant operation in the State of Maryland. The Maryland government has stricter legal policies on food quality control and staffing. The Food Quality Assurance program implemented by the government poses serious threats to the successful operation of restaurant in Maryland. In addition, Maryland regulators have framed burdensome employment laws that would notably reduce the profitability of restaurant operations in the State. In order to address the regulatory issues better, it is advisable for the organization to become a member of the Restaurant Association of Maryland (RAM), which is committed to guiding its members in managing lawsuits and other regulatory concerns effectively. Today’s people are increasingly concerned about social issues like environmental pollution, global warming, climate change, and poor health. It is evident tha t restaurant operations contribute substantially to greenhouse gas emissions, which is a major issue contributing to ozone layer depletion thereby global warming and climate change. Since modern consumers are really aware of the significance of environmental sustainability, they would not support a restaurant business that does not focus on environmental safety. In addition, today consumers are greatly interested to know how businesses execute their corporate social responsibilities. The organization can address this challenge effectively by becoming a socially responsible corporate citizen. Considering the growing scope of hospitality and tourism industry, many new market players have started restaurant operations, and this situation in turn adds to the degree of competitive rivalry. The organization can successfully handle the issue of intense market competition by emphasizing particularly on innovation and efficiency. Finally demographic and geographic issues also raise some pote ntial

Educational Sector in the Great Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Educational Sector in the Great Britain - Essay Example On the face of it, everything is fine in the educational sector in the UK especially in its schooling system but a deeper study of its curriculum raises questions about its efficacy and influence it would have on the future professionals of the Great Britain. The ever increasing gap between academic theories taught at schools and their applicability in practical and professional life poses a great question mark over their usefulness in making up the future citizens of the country. Already it has reached a threatening stage where the native British youth have been lagging behind in taking up professional careers when compared to their counterparts of Asian origin in the UK. Lucinda Platt of the University of Essex, using the data from the UK's Office for National Statistics, has recently disclosed that young people of ethnic minority families in Britain, particularly Indian working class families, have been claiming a larger cake in professional and managerial roles in the country. According to Platt, 56 percent of The theory and practice of education is directly linked to the growth of practical knowledge among the wealth of students. It would also have its impact on the effective or ineffective utilisation of youth power for the sake of the country and society. The design and development of curriculum, pupils and educational management, teaching methods, prioritising the subjects, inculcation of necessary creative and imaginary skills among the student community are all part and parcel of the theory and practice of education. Among these, curriculum and its related affairs play a major role in consolidating the pieces of knowledge gained by the students. When one deeply thinks of the ongoing schooling curriculum in the country, one tends to note that unfortunately it is not creative oriented but purely pro-academic. Most of the UK schools have been following the teaching of academic subjects colleted from various sources while no importance is being accorded to supplement the theoretical kno wledge with practical proficiency. Practical knowledge is used to find solutions to problems plaguing the society. In the absence of this end objective, there is no meaning to pursue any kind of education. Mary Warnock, acclaimed educationist and researcher, strongly feels that education and teaching should above all aim to stimulate and engage the imaginative skills of the students. As far back as 1973, 3 Warnock, in her research paper 'Towards a Definition of Quality in Education', had suggested that it would be better for students to leave their schools with a profound knowledge of one important subject rather than shallow knowledge of several topics (Mary Warnock, Para 6).What a visionary statement it was! The singular meaning of her statement, applicable even in present days, is not very difficult to understand. She was thoroughly of the view that students should not be subjected with formal acquaintance of several subjects as it would not give them

Enzymology Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enzymology - Lab Report Example Enzymes do accelerate reaction rate by more than 1 million g=folds, in that reactions would take a very long time to occur. Appropriate enzymes catalyze in few seconds and there activities, in many cases occur inside the cell, within the membranes of the cell. The rate of reaction when Ph, temperature, time and the substrate are at a constant is determined by the enzyme availability. Effects of enzymes in substrate concentration can be analysed as below. The concentration of enzymes is a factor in determining the rate of reaction. The substrate needs to be present in excess. That is to say that each reaction should be independent of the concentration of the substrate. Any possible change in product amount over a given time period depends upon present enzyme level. A and E reacting leads to B at a constant rate k1, this turns to C and generates E again at a constant rate k2. At that instance, B has the possibility of turning into A and E again at a constant rate k-1. Michaelis-Menten enzymatic catalysis mechanism follows this path. Competitive inhibition has a molecule similar to the present or available substrate but not able to be acted on by those enzymes that compete with them for sites that are active. Fewer active sites readily act on the substrate because of the inhibitor presence. Given the structure of the enzyme is not affected by the enzyme inhibitors; they will still act as catalysts for the reaction. In inhibition that is uncompetitive, molecules tend to bind to enzymes instead of sites that are active. That makes the three dimensional enzyme structures to change in that its site that is active still binds to the substrate in affinity that is usual, though not in the optimal arrangement of stabilizing the rate of transition and in turn catalyzing the reaction. Lineweaver Burk plots are significant in a number of ways. For instance, in the case where it is

Mind body issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mind body issue - Essay Example One of the most important questions asked is whether the mind is part of the body or the body part of the mind. What makes the two connect or interact with each other if at all they are distinct? This also makes many wonder, which one should be in charge in case of distinctive existence. The question requires proper understanding and argumentation because every point of view has a logical explanation. The main aim is to ensure that the process of determining this will meet the main attributes of the relationship, explaining everything based on the theories put forward to explain this relationship. The mind and the body are two distinct attributes that casually interact at given times for the sake of performing bodily activities. Descartes is one of the proponents of dualism and pointed out clearly that the mind was the consciousness that existed within an individual. Unlike the brain, which was the source of the intelligence individuals possessed, the mind was an attribute that defined and determined the thought processes of a human being (Squire 20). The main reason for taking a dualistic stand is the fact that the mind has a different functionality in comparison to matter. Mind has a conscious attribute that cannot not reduced to physical attributes despite the number of times studies are conducted on it. A proper organization of matter allows for emergence of mental properties (Kim 40). The mind will only react to that which it sees as appropriately connected to the way it operates. This means that the mind will not come to full action when it perceives something is not okay. When someone is sick, the body has some deficiencies. The body will not operate well and the mind will be unresponsive in that are a. For example, if one has leprosy, the body goes numb and no thought process can make that part of the body to have any form of functionality. The mind will work on

Is strong character enough to guarantee ethical practice in a Essay

Is strong character enough to guarantee ethical practice in a profession - Essay Example Aristotle argues that character ought to be consistent over time, as well as coherent at all times. A person of good character enforces virtues and values through appropriate dispositions and emotions. Aristotle asserts that character is a matter of what one likes doing, therefore, good character is manifest in doing the right thing while having the right desires and emotions. He asserts that strong character involves values, the readiness to act on them, and ability to take the appropriate action in a particular situation (Hartman 78). Bayles proposes three central features and three secondary features that define a profession. The central features are extensive training; the training involves a significant intellectual component, and that the trained professional upon qualification has the ability to provide an important service to the community. The secondary features are credentialing where members are certified or licensed as a qualification for practice (Bivins 76). The other feature is the existence of a professional organisation that strives to advance the goals of the organisation as well as improving the economic status of members. Lastly, most professions stress autonomy among their members as a precursor for a successful professional career. Consequently, professionals must act professionally by observing the dictates of professional behavior including ethical imperatives. When professionals act this way they gain respect from society and peers. Building on the works of Aristotle and Bayles, this paper explores the importance of a strong character in ensuring ethical practice among professionals (Bivins 76). Ethical codes are systematic guidelines meant to shape the behavior of professionals regarding the morally accepted values and beliefs. However, codes do not provide absolute or complete rules that are free from conflict and ambiguity. Since codes do not provide

Bismarck in the year 1894 Essay Example for Free

Bismarck in the year 1894 Essay Source: Bismarck. Des eisernen Kanzlers Leben in annà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hernd 200 seltenen Bildern nebst einer Einfà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hrung. Herausgegeben von Walter Stein. Im Jahre des 100. Geburtstags Bismarcks und des groà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½en Krieges 1915. Hermann Montanus, Verlagsbuchhandlung Siegen und Leipzig 1) How did the Germans get the Empire they wanted by 1890? Germany appeared as an Empire after the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. Otto Van Bismarck, Prussian Chancellor since 1862, knew that to unify an Empire, several aspects had to be organized. He became German Chancellor in 1871 and set up a constitution on the same year. With this, powers were separated into three different branches: The Kaiser, The Chancellor and the two Chambers. He also sought to control opposition. The Church was controlled with the May Laws (Falk) and the Kulturkampf. For socialists he passed the enabling law (1878) to control them, and several insurances to favour them. Bismarck also believed that an Empire ought to have colonies for industrial development. In 1789, he had to bring tariffs so as to raise money for his foreign policy. By passing the constitution, Bismarck was successful in separating the powers. The most powerful one was the Kaiser. The first Kaiser was William I (former King of Prussia). He was the maximum authority in Germany. He had full control of the army and navy and decided whether the country was at war or made peace treaties with other countries. He also appointed all the Ministers in the Empire. This was helpful for Bismarck since he was appointed Chief Minister (Chancellor) of the German Empire. He was very influential with the Kaiser, he controlled him. As he could do as he liked, it later allowed him to dominate the German Empire. The German parliament consisted of two Chambers: The Bundesrat and the Reichstag. The first one mentioned, was conformed of 58 delegates appointed by States representatives. As 14 votes were needed to reject measures and 17 delegates were Prussian, this house was controlled by her. The Reichstag was elected by the universal manhood suffrage. It was a much more democratic system than the Bundersrat and represented citizens. However, it was controlled by the Bundersrat. This house was also controlled by Prussian superiority, since half of its members were Prussian. Controlling the opposition was certainly something that Bismarck intended to do. Bismarck followed a centripetal (centralizing) policy. He thought that people had to work in things related to the Empire. On the other hand, the Catholic Church followed a centrifugal (going away from the centre) policy. The Church looked for foreign countries, so Bismarck decided to attack it. Bismarck supported the German Catholic teachers who didnt agree (Old Catholics) with the idea of Papal Infallibity (1870). The Church intended to promote actions of the New Catholics, who followed the new doctrine. To solve this problem, Bismarck organized a campaign by the State against the Church known as the Kulturkampf. He was supported by the National Liberals while the Church was supported by the Centre Party. This campaign separated state and church affairs: Jesuits were expelled from Germany; German schools controlled by State inspectors, in 1874 Marriage had to take place before government-appointed officials. In May 1873-74-75, Falk, the Minister of Church Affairs, introduced the May (Falk) laws. This brought several changes as regards the Church: the Church was forbidden to excommunicate old priests publicly, before starting priestly studies, people had to study at a state university and pass an examination, the state now accepted or neglected teaching posts to clergymen, Catholic educative establishments had to accept inspections by state officials and all religious orders were dissolved. The Social Democratic Party (SDP) set up in 1869 owned by 1877, 12 seats in the Reichstag. In 1878, when the attempts of killing the Kaiser took place, Bismarck decided to blame the Socialists. To obtain control of them, he passed the Enabling Law (1878). This Law, allowed the government to declare a state emergency if necessary. It also forbade Socialist publications. Over 1500 Socialists were arrested in 1878. However, Bismarck realized he could not cope with the Socialists. He gave several insurances to them since his intention was to get popular support. Workers were insuranced against sickness (1883), against accidents at work (1884) and were given old age pensions (Jubilacià ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½n) in 1889. By 1879, Bismarck realized that he needed money badly for his foreign policy. He intended to have a better equipped army, a Civil service needed to run the Empire and for the social welfare. He knew that if he asked the Reichstag to impose new taxes, he would give the Chamber more power than what he wanted to give. He then decided to apply a system of protective tariffs which would help him to obtain money. Bismarck knew that Germany needed colonies to enhance its industrial development, in spite of possibly annoying Britain that could harm Germany in the future with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. By promoting colonial expansions, Germany could obtain raw materials, markets for German goods and a living space (Lebensraum) for the growing population. In 1882, Bismarck intended to acquire colonies by forming a Colonial Union. Finally, in 1884, the major Powers agreed on a division of Africa. Germany obtained: South West Africa, Togoland and the Cameroons (1885), the naval base of Holigoland (1890) and obtained German East Africa with an agreement with Britain on the same year. Germany could be an Empire by 1890 due to Bismarcks achievements. He succeeded in organizing the empire by separating powers. He could control opposition since as he could dominate the Kaiser he could do as he pleased. He passed laws for the Socialists and the Church that allowed Germany to be a unified Empire. His intention was organizing Germany since he knew that for an Empire to be unified, it first had to be organized. His goal was finally achieved but he was forced to resign in 1890.

The New Brutalist Architecture Anthropology Essay

The New Brutalist Architecture Anthropology Essay New Brutalist architecture is the outcome of a British architectural ethic named New Brutalism. According to Peter and Alice Smithson, the term was coined from a newspaper paragraph heading which, by poor translation of French, called the Marseilles Unità © by Le Corbusier Brutalism in architecture[1]. The Smithsons anointed their own British brand of Modernism by adding New both because they came after Le Corbusier and also in response to the style of the Architectural Review which at the start of the 1950s sunned many articles on the New Monumentality, the New Empiricism, the New Sentimentality etc.[2] Thus, New Brutalism was set to up be the direct line development of the Modern Movement. According to Banham (1966), whilst the terms Brutalism and New Brutalism are often used interchangeably, it is important to distinguish the meanings of the two terms as this paper will be focusing on the latter. Brutalism, though a British term, refers to an architectural aesthetic that is characterised by sticking repetitive angular geometries, and where concrete is used. A building without concrete can achieve a Brutalist character through a rough blocky appearance, and the expression of its structural materials, forms and services on its exterior. Another common theme is the exposure of the buildings functions in the exterior of the building. Banham (1966) summarises the key characteristics of Brutalist architecture as formal legibility of plan, clear exhibition of structure, direct and honest use of materials and clear exhibition of services. Thus, Brutalism casts back in time to include Le Corbusier as one of its important contributors. On the other hand, New Brutalism was coined before any New Brutalist architecture was built. It is an ethic, not aesthetic and is associated with socialist utopian ideology supported by Peter and Alison Smithson and the Team 10 group of architects amongst which they belonged. It is more related to the theoretical reform in urban theory proposed by CIAM than to bà ©ton brut. Thus, having originated from entirely different, organic theoretical doctrines, the British brand of Brutalism has considerable differences to Brutalist architecture from the continent. New Brutalism was born in the post-war era, almost exclusively in the Architects Department of the London County Council (LCC) the only place where young graduated architects such as Peter and Alison Smithson and many   from the Architectural Association school (AA) could find work in London. Many architects who have returned from the world had fought to make the world safe but the economic terms of the price of victory was heavy and the country faced long periods of austerity resulting in shortages, a shortfall in housing and social services. It was a time of benevolent socialism and commitment to the welfare state following the election of the Labour Government in 1945. The government had assumed responsibility for the welfare of the people in a way that would have been unthinkable in the 1930s.[3] Many houses of the working class poor that were in the centre of large industrial cities such as London, Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham have been destroyed. In London, Abercromb ie and Forshaw published the County of London Plan which described the challenge faced by the government. The report recognised that there is abundant evidence that for families with children, houses are preferred to flats. They provide a private garden and yard at the same level as the main rooms of the dwelling, and fit the English temperament.[4] But, to put everyone in houses would result in the displacement of two-thirds to three-quarters of the people. The planners wished to minimise the out-movement of jobs. They settled on 136 persons per acre which based on the research they did put one third of the people in houses, and some 60 per cent in eight- and ten- storey flats; about half of families with two children will go into flats, but even this density meant the overspill of 4 in 10 of all people living in this zone in 1939. Furthermore, there was the sense of lesprit nouveau of making a fresh start after the cleansing effect of the war. The London architectural debate was fractionized; largely between the student generation and practicing establishment architects. The Establishment architects tended towards Socialist political alignment, with the welfare state architecture of Sweden as the architectural paradigm. For the whole generation of graduating architects from the AA were strongly influenced by the ideas of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe; the Ville Radieuse and the Unità © dHabitation suggested a model to be applied by good hard socialist principles in good hard modernist materials.[5] They felt the Establishment architects were tending towards what they saw as a softer and more humanist Modernism, a retreat from the pre-war, heroic form of Modernism[6]. The Architects Department at the LCC provided a model in the early years; it had an unusually free hand, because the Ministrys ordinary co st sanctions did not apply to it[7]. It first produced the great Corbusian slabs which culminated in the only true realisation of the Radiant City in the world the Alton West estate in Roehampton[8]. The New Brutalists concept of order is not classical but topological: its implementation on a site could have involved judging the case on its merits (i.e. land form, accommodation required, finance available) rather than in accordance with a pre-established classical or picturesque schema.[9] Thus, they distinguish themselves from the earlier Brutalists such as Le Corbusier who proposed in his 1925 Plan Voisin to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the Seine in order to replace it with a hard of identical sixty-story towers. The Swiss architect was working in an inter-war Paris of exuberant, chaotic and often sordid everyday life[10] when the city was racked by disease and slums. He believed in centralising order (The design of cities was too important to be left to citizens[11]). His plans always relied on his famous paradox: we must decongest the centres of our cities by increasing their density; in addition, we must improve circulation and increase the amount of open space. T he paradox could be resolved by building high on a small part of total ground area[12]. This vision required clearing entire sites (WE MUST BUILD ON A CLEAR SITE! The city of today is dying because it is not constructed geometrically[13]). In war-torn London, the New Brutalists had the luxury of bomb-cleared sites but they also had a greater awareness for the historical fabric of the place-the designers of the Barbican estate built around St Giles church which survived the bombing and designers of Park Hill in Sheffield preserved old street names from the slum for their elevated walkways. Le Corbusier developed his principles of planning most fully in La Ville Contemporaine (1922) and La Ville Radieuse(1932). The plans differed in their recommendation for social distribution. The Contemporary Citys clearly differentiated spatial structure was designed to reflect a specific, segregated social structure: ones dwelling depended on ones job[14]. The residential areas would be of two types: six-storey luxury apartments for professional white collar workers (e.g. industrialists, scientists and artisits), and more modest accommodation for workers, built around courtyards, with less open space. These apartments would be mass-produced for mass-living. The apartments would all be uniform, contain standard furniture and be collectively serviced much like a hotel. Le Corbusier also designed entertainment and cultural complexes close to the middle-class in the centre of the city. The blue collar workers would not live like this. They would live in garden apartments within satellit e units. A different and appropriate sort of green space, sports facilities and entertainments would be available for these residents. Many aspects of New Brutalist architecture echo ideas from the Contemporary City. Income segregation has been practiced to different extents; the Barbican estates apartments vary between elaborate and fashionable layouts on the affluent south side (where the tenants were mainly city workers) and simpler layouts and designs on north side where social housing is concentrated[15]. Furthermore, whole out of town social housing estates such as Thamesmead have been built to resemble Le Corbusiers satellite units. By the time of the Radiant City, though the tenets of the Corbusian religion remained unchanged, there were important theological variations.   Everyone will be equally collectivised and live in giant apartments called Unità ©s. Every family will get an apartment not according to the breadwinners job, but according to rigid space norms: no one will get anything more or less than the minimum necessary for efficient existence. Everyone will enjoy collective services such as cooking, cleaning and childcare. Similarly, New Brutalist architects have tried to logically work from basic human needs in order to distinguish the necessary from the unnecessary and thereby simplifying existing architectural conventions to create an efficient living or working space[16]. However, rarely have they attempted to create truly mixed-income neighbourhoods, having concentrated on social housing estates. Although the recent redevelopment of Park Hill estate in Sheffied is mixing affordable and commerci al residential housing in the Brutalist estate, it cannot be said that mixed-income communities were a tenet of New Brutalism. Brutalist architecture quickly became the official architecture of the Welfare State. Criticisms of its severe problems took a very long time to come. In order to see why, it is important to appreciate how bad were the original dense rows of smoke-blackened slums that the towers replaced. Six years of war had reduced those parts of London and the great provincial cities to a sinister squalor. For two decades, any social disbenefits of modernist planning and its transformation of the town passed largely unremarked[17]. Criticisms rapidly became deafening in the 1970s after the subsidy system had been recast and local authorities were already phasing out their high-rise blocks. Though the outburst was triggered by the collapse of a building in a gas explosion, the majority of the complaints were eloquently summarised by Kenneth Campbell, who was in charge of housing design at the LCC and GLC from 1959 to 1974, to be the lifts (too few, too small, too slow), the children (too many), and the management (too little)[18]. Most importantly, critics like to point out that the true cause of all such problems, of which Corbusier is a fully culpable as any of his followers, was that the middle-class designers had no real feeling for the way a working-class family lived[19]; in their world [children] are not hanging around the landing or playing with the dustbin lids[20]. Chapter Two Dreams v Reality Inside the Minds of Brutalist Architects The sin of Corbusier and the Corbusians thus lay not in their designs, but in the mindless arrogance whereby they were imposed on people who could not take them and could never, given a modicum of thought, ever have been expected to take them[21] Corbusian Brutalism and New Brutalism suffered very much similar design failures, and the two have often been combined or confused in ridicule. However, this chapter points out that New Brutalism should not be indiscriminately blamed for deigning solely for the ideals of the middle-class, or that the designers similarly imposed the designs upon such unwitting residents without considering their social-economic needs and lifestyle. With ambition for a new approach to modernist architecture, the New Brutalists sought to exploit the low cost and pragmatism of mass produced materials and pre-fabricated components[22], mixing uses instead of segregation (as in Le Corbusiers design of La Ville Radieuse), designing specific to location and purpose and to use their signature elevated walkways which they named streets in the air. A satisfactory analysis of the architecture would evaluate the performance of such design features one by one, in essence performing an autopsy and separating the healthy organs, from the moderately healthy and the failed. After the procedure is over the pathologist may wonder why certain failed organs were designed in a way that may have been responsible for putting them in the line of trouble. To understand this we will look at what the architects were trying to achieve and the sources that influenced them. Peter and Alice Smithson wished to achieve the Virgilian dream the peace of the countryside enjoyed with the self-consciousness of the city dweller into the notion of the city itself[23]. Thus, unlike Ebenezer Howard who created the garden cities to combine the benefits of the countryside with the utility of city services, the Smithsons wished to take the garden city back into the city. They sought control and calm as key qualities in the modern city. They were also inspired by the flood of new consumer technologies and advertising. The Smithsons felt Le Corbusier was the first to put together the world of popular and fine arts towards the end of his life in Unità © dHabitation in Marseilles. They felt he viewed historic art possibly the classical origins of heroic architectural principles not as a stylistic source but as a pattern of organisation, and a source of social reform and technological revolution[24]. The Smithsons themselves recognised that advertising was making a bigger contribution to the visual climate of the 1950s than any of the fine arts. Advertising was selling products as a natural accessory to life and is packed with information for the average man it had taken over from fine art as the definition of what is fine and desirable by society. They recognised that the mass produced consumer goods had revolutionised the house without the intervention of the architect. However, they also felt that pre-fabricated buildings built for utility and not aesthetics (e.g. schools and garages) have adapted to the built environment a lot better to the existing built environment than buildings designed by fine art architects. Thus, in context of the desire to create calm and safe dwellings for the city dweller, architectural should be developed for the machine-served city. As with the majority of architects of their age, the Smithsons were profoundly influenced by the architecture of Mies van der Rohe. The Smithsons in particular stated that they were profoundly changed by two of Rohes themes: 1. To make a thing well is not only a moral imperative, but it is also the absolute base of the pleasure of use 2. The machine-calm city. No rhetoric, just ordering of elements to effect a gentle, live, equipoise ordinary quality. Neoclassicism.[25] The first point touches on the material aspect of Rohes love for perfection of detail and the use of the finest quality of materials, with the greatest care. The Smithsons felt Rohe had a special feeling for materials as luxury the observer is made aware of the essence of each material[26] Interestingly, this focus on the existential qualities of concrete and the keenness to use the material for its physical characteristic has enjoyed a recent revival in architecture. Conversely, there is debate with regards to the reason why the Smithsons and the Modernist architects before 1980s used the material so liberally. Sarah Williams Goldhagen believed that the Smithson did employ concrete for its physical properties whereas Adrian Forty argues that such conclusions are misguided in part because the Smithsons themselves tried to appeal to a later audience by discussing their earlier works in a new light in their publications. Forty believes that the Modernist architects of per-1980s were p rimarily interested in the form of their structures; further that in the ordinariness of their forms and the unremarkable, smooth and grey expanse of concrete they sought to achieve an abstract formlessness, as if literally urging the structure to disappear with irrelevance. Thus, concrete was not chosen because it was concrete, but rather because it had the properties the architects desired. The latter explanation seems to be the case of the Smithsons in 1974 when they wrote that many old cities the feeling of control is derived from the repetition of the use of materials on every roof, the roofs having been built at the same pitch, with similar roof lights etc. This suggests that perhaps the repeated use of concrete in so many parts of the building was not motivated by its suitability but by the need to repeat and extend control. The Smithsons were keen for their repetition of elements to seem to derive from the intention of the whole, rather than seeming to have been designed as one separate entity which is then repeated. They found that a repetition with subtle differences used by Rohe in creating a large at-the-whole-community-scale central open space was life-including[27]. They also felt that a building is more interesting if it is more than itself if it changes the space around it with connective possibilities but by a quietness that until now our sensibilities could not recognise as architecture at all. They felt a sense of wellbeing can be found if the built-form and the counterpart space are locked together[28]. The recognition that a building is not alone, that it exerts an influence on its surroundings and needs to interact with it to be successful seems now far off from the emphasis of todays planning policies for high quality, inclusive design which should integrate into existing urban form and the natural and built environments[29]. However, what sounded similar is very different in practice as we can see in Robin Hood Gardens, a project by the Smithsons where they consciously incorporated their vision of inclusive design. We can see that the buildings were definitely designed with the central space in mind they are even curved according to the landscape features. However, the estate does not integrate with buildings of the surrounding areas very well in terms of scale or layout. Critics state that it failed to come to terms that existing spatial fabrics held memory and value[30]. People adapt slowly to change a building that nods to the original fabric will aid the adaptation process . This design fails to be inclusive for the surrounding areas that are outside the architects control and thus does not fall into the broader scope of todays standard of good design. However, an earlier project by the Smithsons was a widely held success for integrating well within and introducing variations to the City of London. This was the Economist Plaza which was completed in 1964. A group of three office towers built on a picturesque piazza to allow pedestrian movement independent of the road system with street level access to services and shops, it broke the London tradition of the closed block, and may be considered the precursor of later office developments such as Broadgate[31]. However, its success was also attributed to restraint that was sensitive to context, by the use of stone instead of concrete to assimilate choice of material of older buildings nearby, and designing on the basis of an ancient Greek acropolis plan to maintain with the scale and governing lines of tr adition-bound St Jeremys Street. The successful features of this project also marked a retreat from Brutalism to the restrained Classicism of Mies van der Rohe[32]. The Economist Plaza is an example of how the Smithsons usually go about the designing process they conducted length research into the working practices of the journalists of the Economist magazine in order to create the most efficient structure. Their aim was for their buildings to be specific to their location and purpose[33]. They also took inspiration from the works of others. At the time when the Smithsons were compiling their entry to the Golden Lane housing competition between 1951 and 1953, they had contact with the Hendersons who were conducting social studies in the East End of London. This steered their reading of the city towards a form which reflected the structure of human association. This led to their radical suggestion that the street and housing blocks might multiply in a random and biological way to form a network overlaid on the existing city in a way reminiscent of molecular patterns or fractals. Thus, the topography or the context of a specific site would mould the disposition of the project. The idea of a network is based on the Smithsons belief that a community cannot be created by geographic isolation which, they feel, was the mistake made by English neighbourhood planning (through grouping around an infant school, community centre or group of shops), and the Unità © concept of Le Corbusier[34]. They aspire to aid social cohesion through the looseness of grouping and ease of communication. They felt the quintessential role of the planner is to create a sense of place by encouraging the creation of non-arbitrary groupings and effective communication, making possible groupings based on the family, street, district, region and city apparent. To maintain the looseness of grouping and the ease of communication, density must increase as population increases. The Smithsons believed that we must build high to avoid eating up farmland and creating congestion and increasing travel time on the roads. The architects recognised that high-rise living led to problems such as deprivation of outdoor life, the ineffectiveness of vertical communication, and difficulty in forming friendships for the lack of horizontal communication at the same level[35]. And so they proposed an ambitions vision of a multi-layered, city, leaving on the ground the support networks such as freight and utilities. In large cities, such things as light industries, workshops, clinics, shopping centres and small hotels could easily be located on raised levels: integrated with the deck-dwelling pattern the hope is that the advantage of close physical proximity will draw people to the clearly different districts of the city cause an urban revival a new city in which the home will be very much the centre of all activities[36]. The council house in the UK should be capable of being put together with others in a similar sort, so as to form bigger and equally comprehensive elements which can be added to existing villages and towns in such a way as to revitalise the traditional hierarchies, and not destroy them. The architects felt that building imitation market towns both inside and outside cities deny them the right to be urban forms because they do not engage with the pre-existing community to which they have been attached. The architects were also interested in achieving clarity between private and public space, much like Le Corbusiers Unità © which preserved the individual in seclusion while giving expression to the communal life and faith of the Order with a double-height collective space, and links through the balconies with the world outside. The interior street provides an enclosed world of neighbours whilst the shopping arcade and the roof space belong to and give expression to the total community.[37] The Smithsons were keen to preserve this divide: From the moment the man or child steps outside his dwelling our responsibility starts for the individual has not got the control over his extended environment that he has over his house[38].     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Smithsons entry for Golden Lane failed but their design laid the foundations for the development of streets in the air. The streets in the air are a reinterpretation of East End bye-law streets because the Smithsons saw that such traditional streets in the East End function well as a main public forum for communication, as a playground for children and provide open space for public gatherings and large scale sociability in working class Britain. To fulfil these functions in a Brutalist apartment block, Le Corbusiers rue intà ©rieure-the double-loaded, long, dark corridor on the inside of the building will need to be moved to the exterior. They will be 12 foot wide, continuous and reach every part of the development. At Park Hill estate, Sheffied, the architects even made sure that original Victorian street names were kept and neighbours from the original slum area where the estate replaced were housed next to eachother. This contributed to the initial popularity of the estate b ut it could not stop problems of crime and dilapidation following. It is interesting to compare the fates of Robin Hood Gardens and Park Hill. The vertical circulation system and access from streets in the air were said to make the Robin Hood estate unpopular[39]. However, it was also blamed for disagreeing with the Smithsons idea at Golden Lane of housing elements forming networks or clusters and the Team 10 premise that a buildings first duty is to the fabric in which it stands by having been divided into two building blocks. They do not demonstrate, by combining into a longer entity the potential for a city wide pedestrian network[40]. On the other hand, Park Hill estate does join up into a large entity but its 12 foot decks were in turn blamed for providing quick getaways for burglars and other criminals. Neither building realised the dream of the elevated community utopia. Does this suggest that streets in the air in actuality never got off the ground? The Barbican estate offers safe and secluded elevated decks with beautiful views over the e state but it does not serve as a social gathering place for the residents nor a playground for the children. It seems somehow it is extremely difficult to recapture the East End feel in the Smithsons signature design feature. At the CIAM conference in 1953, they attacked the decades-old dogma propounded by Le Corbusier and others that cities should be zoned into specific areas for living, working, leisure and transport, and that urban housing should consist of tall, widely spaced towers[41]. The Smithsons ideal city would combine different activities within the same areas. However, the legacy of CIAM and of Le Corbusier was a significant burden and will take time to wear off[42]. By the close of 1960s, there was a shift from the raw Brutalism of the 50s to a gentler and more refined form of architectural language[43]. Team 10s urban productions were marked by a distinct retreat from the early mobility-driven solutions to solutions based on the metamorphosis of inherent qualities of existing urban structures where large open sites were concerned; or rehabilitation and reuse of existing structures combined with new small-scale interventions, were existing structures are concerned. In effect, many of the so called Post-Modern revolutions of 1970s, including participation, rehabilitation, restoration, preservation, and political reorganisation, had been pre-dated by Team 10s thinking during 1960s.[44] Does this suggest that the New Brutalists finally acknowledged the mistakes of their designs and retreated? Such an interpretation would have ignored the context of 1950s where a quick solution was needed to re-house many people from bombed out regions in the centre of industrial cities and putrid slums. However, haste is a lazy excuse for questionable design. It cannot be ignored that the hard concrete aesthetic and morphological autonomy in part alienated Brutalist works from their residents and ended up forming ghettos for housing for the lower classes. In fairness, many estates in Britain were brought off the peg by local authorities too lazy or unimaginative to hire architects and planners of their own[45] that resulted in appalling dimness and dullness[46]. But, the original designs from New Brutalist architects also proved to be design disasters. Despite their efforts to accommodate the working class into their towers, they designed buildings with features that were highly uns uitable for such residents and eventually drove them away. Chapter 3 Design Failures According to R. K. Jarvis[47], Le Corbusiers urban design principles belong to the artistic tradition in urban design, sharing the umbrella term with Camillo Sitte, Gordon Cullen, Roy Worskett and the Ministry for Housing and Local Government in London which designed the post-war British towns and villages. From first appearances, such principles could not be more different. Sittes emphasis artistic principles in city building is the direct aesthetic antithesis to modernists conception of Order by pure geometry; and neither would have tolerated the rows of front-and-back garden semi-detached houses of post-war England. Martin Kreigers Review of Large Scale Planning[48] sets out three binds the set of limitations of particular attitudes that are common with all urban designers of the artistic tradition. Firstly, the desire for a formal, general model which will provide a scientific foundation for planning analysis and proposals can be seen just as clearly beneath Sittes sensual and overwhelmingly visual impressions as Le Corbusiers utilitarian explanations of the benefits of international-style living. Guidelines, whether calling for That the centre of plazas be kept free or WE MUST BUILD ON A CLEAR SITE!

Liver Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Effects and Treatments

Liver Disease: Causes, Symptoms, Effects and Treatments CHAPTER 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION Liver is the organ which is most important, and it plays a pivotal role in regulating various processes in the body, such as storage, metabolism and secretion. It has great capacity to detoxify toxic substances to nontoxic substances and synthesize useful principles (Shanmugasundaram et al 2006). 1.1 Anatomy of the Liver The liver is a triangular organ that extends across the entire abdominal cavity inferior to diaphragm. Most of the liver’s mass is located on right side of body, where it descends inferiorly toward right kidney. The liver is madeup of very soft, pinkishbrown tissues encapsulated by connective tissue capsule. The capsule is covered and reinforced by the peritoneum of the abdominal cavity which protects liver and holds it in the place within abdomen. Liver consists of four distinct lobes first the left lobe, second the right lobe, third caudate lobe, and last quadrate lobe. The left and right lobes are the large lobes and are separated by the falciform ligament. The right lobe is about five to six times larger than tapered left lobe. The small caudate lobe extends from posterior side of the right lobe and it wraps around the inferior vena cava. Small quadrate lobe is inferior to the caudate lobe and it extends from the posterior side of the right lobe and it wraps around the gallbladder. Figure-1: Structure of liver. Functions of liver: Production of bile that required for the digestion of foods. Storage of extra sugar or glucose into stored glycogen in liver cells of the body and then converts it back into glucose when the the body needs it for energy. Production of clotting factors. Production of amino acids that is building blocks for making proteins, that includes those used to help fight infection. The production and storage of iron which is necessary for production of red blood cells in the body. Manufacturing of cholesterol and other chemical substances that is required for fat transport. Conversion of waste products of the metabolism into urea that is excreted in urine. Metabolising medicines into their active form (ingredient) in the body. 1.2 Liver diseases Liver disease is any disturbance in functions of the liver that cause illness. The liver is responsible for various critical functions in the body and when it becomes injured or diseased, loss of those functions can cause significant damage to body. Liver diseases are also referred as hepatic disease. 1.3 Types of liver diseases Alcoholic liver disease Primary liver cancer Cirrhosis Cysts Fatty liver disease Liver fibrosis Hepatitis Jaundice Primary sclerosing cholangitis 1.3.1 Alcoholic Liver Disease In 2000, cirrhosis was 1 of the leading causes of death in U.S.A. (United States). Alcoholic liver disease usually develops after large amount of alcohol intake. The long period during which alcohol excessively consumed, larger the amount ingested, high the rate of developing alcoholic liver disease and other liver problems. Signs and Symptoms: Confusion Excessive fluid between the membranes lining abdomen and abdominal organs Tenderness and abdominal pain Dry mouth Fever Fatigue Jaundice Weight gain Nausea Loss of appetite Abnormal dark or light skin Agitation Altered level of consciousness Breast development in males Difficulty concentrating Hallucinations Impaired judgment Paleness Redness on feet or hands 1.3.2 Primary Liver Cancer Primary cancer of the liver which is a growing liver problem called primary liver cancer, it generally remains undetected until when this disease has reached the advanced stage because most people do not exhibit these symptoms early on. Signs and Symptoms Jaundice that is yellow discoloration of skin. Abdominal pain (the upper right part of the abdomen) Swelling of abdomen An enlarged liver Fatigue General weakness Loss of appetite Nausea vomiting Weight loss 1.3.3 Liver Cirrhosis Liver cirrhosis is generally considered to the fourth stage of the alcoholic liver disease, it is progressive condition which causes liver damage. chronic alcoholism is the most common cause of this disease. 40% of the 27000 people die from this disease. Cirrhosis is characterized by the replacement of normal healthy tissue by fibrous tissue, regenerative nodules and scarring of the liver that is liver scarring. The resulting hardening of the liver, hard liver interferes with the blood circulation in the body, it leads to irreversible damage to the liver and a completely loss of liver function. Signs and Symptoms Abdominal accumulation of fluid in abdominal cavity Abnormal pain Bleeding from engorged veins in esophagus Dark cola-colored urine Exhaustion Gallstone Fatigue Diabetes type 2 Itchy hands and feet Loss of appetite Cancer of liver Liver failure Nausea and vomitting Malfunctioning of other systems such as impotence, kidney dysfunction and failure, and osteoporosis Hypertension Sensitivity to medications Spider-like small blood vessels under the skin Swelling of feet and hands from retained fluid Hepatic encephalopathy Weight loss Weakness jaundice Liver cysts Liver cyst also known as hepatic cyst, a simple liver cyst is a bubble (thin walled bubble), a fluid filled cavity in liver. A common liver problem, liver cyst can normal benign and pose no health risks. but in some cases, liver cyst may grow large enough to cause pain and discomfort in the abdomen, liver enlargement, infection of bile ducts, and bile ducts obstruction, that leads the cyst itself to become infected. In this case, it is necessary to drain and remove the cyst. Fatty Liver Disease Fatty Liver Diseases (steatosis) are generally considered to the first stage of Alcoholic Liver Disease. The exact causes of Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) are unclear. Many researchers, however, believe that the metabolic syndrome—a cluster of disorders that increase risk of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke—plays a crucial role in development of NAFLD. NAFLD Levels of Severity Simple fatty liver (steatosis). NASH (Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis), it is the inflammation and signs of necrosis. Cirrhosis is characterized by scarring of liver, results in a hard liver which is un-able to function proper. so Cirrhosis can be fatal. Signs and Symptoms Bleeding in esophagus from engorged veins Fatigue Fluid in the abdominal cavity Itching of feet and hands, and eventually entire body Loss of appetite Liver failure Lack of interest in sex Mentally confusion, such as forgetfulness and trouble concentrating Nausea and vomitting Small red spider veins under skin Swelling of feet and legs from retained fluid Weight loss Weakness Cola-colored urine Jaundice 1.3.6 Liver Fibrosis Liver fibrosis is generally considered to the third stage of Alcoholic Liver Disease, liver fibrosis is a liver condition which is very progressive. Liver fibrosis is characterised by the formation of the fibrous tissue, regenerative nodules and scarring of liver, which interfere circulation of blood and lead to loss of functions of liver. caused by chronic alcoholism and hepatitis C, cirrhosis is a disease which is degenerative disease of liver. Signs and Symptoms: Abdominal accumulation of fluids in abdomen Abnormal pain Bleeding from engorged veins in intestines or oesophagus Dark cola coloured urine Easy bruising Exhaustion Fatigue Itchy feet and hands Loss of appetite Lack of interest in sex Nausea and vomitting Swelling of feet and legs by retained fluid (edema) Enlargement of the liver Weakness Loss of weight Jaundice 1.3.7 Hepatitis Hepatitis is gastroenterological disease, means inflammation of liver. Hepatitis is not 1, but many diseases hepatitis A to E in which inflammation of liver occurs and its cells are damaged and then inflammatory chemicals are released and being produced in the liver. in some cases hepatitis B infection increases person’s chance to development of liver cancer by 100 times. Signs and Symptoms of Hepatitis: Diarrhea Dark urine Abdominal pain Enlarged liver Fever Fatigue General achiness Jaundice 1.3.8 Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis Cholangitis is inflammation of bile ducts of liver. Sclerosing is inflammation leads to the excessive formation of scar and fibrous tissue. In primary sclerosing cholangitis PSC, the bile ducts of the liver have become inflamed and scarred. 1.3.9 Jaundice It is not directly the disease of liver but rather symptom that can occur as result of variety of diseases. Jaundice appears a yellow discoloration of skin and white of the eyes caused by the abnormal formation of bilirubin in the blood. Orange yellowish pigment bilirubin, bilirubin is the part of bile, it forms in the liver as a byproduct of old cells of blood. When there are many blood cells (RBC) dying for liver to cope with yellowish pigment forms in the body resulting in jaundice, it is visible sign of liver problems. Jaundice is an indicator that a person is suffering from 1 of a many diseases including, Paracetamol toxicity Alcoholic liver diseases Autoimmune hepatitis An abnormal narrowing of the bile duct Blocked bile ducts caused by stones, infection, and tumors Chronic hepatitis Drug induced cholestasis, bile pools in the gallbladder as a result of certain drugs Drug induced hepatitis Fatty liver disease Hemolytic anemia Intra-hepatic cholestasis of pregnancy, bile pools in the gallbladder because of the pressure in the abdomen during pregnancy. Ischemic hepatocellular jaundice Pancreatic cancer Primary biliary cirrhosis Primary liver cancer Viral hepatitis Malaria Causes of liver disease Viral hepatitis Obesity Alcohol Genetics Autoimmune disorders Drugs Toxins Cancer Table-1 Types of hepatobiliary injury or damage 1.5 Mechanism of hepatotoxicity Distruption of cytoskeleton: phalloidin and microcystin disrupts the integrity of hepatocyte cytoskeleton by affecting proteins that are vital to its dynamic nature. (Phillips et al, 1986) Cholastasis: Bile formation is vulnerable to toxicant effects on the functional integrity of sinusoidal transporters, canalicular exporters, cytoskeleton dependent processes for transcytosis, and the contractile closure of the canalicular lumen.changes that weaken the junctions that form the structural barrier between the blood and the canalicular lumen allow solutes to leak out of the canalicular lumen. An immunosuppressive drug frequently reported to cause elevated level of serum bile salts and bilirubin as well as a reduction in bile flow. Mitochondrial damage: Preferential injury to mitochondrial DNA, as opposed to nuclear DNA, is a plausible mechanistic basis for structural and functional alterations to hepatic mitochondria associated with nucleoside analog therapy for hepatitis B and AIDS infections and with alcohol abuse. 1.6 Hepatotoxic agents Abacavir Acetaminophen Acitretin Alcohol Aldesleukin Amiodarone Amsacrine Anabolic steroids Androgens Asparaginase Bexarotene Carbamazepine Carmustine Cytarabine Dantrolene Dapsone Daunorubicin Disulfiram Divalproex Epirubicin Erythromycins Estrogens Ethionamide Etretinate Felbamate Fluconazole Flutamide Gold compounds Halothane HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors Imatinib Iron (overdose) Isoniazid Itraconazole Ketoconazole Labetalol Mercaptopurine Methimazole Methotrexate Methyldopa Metronidazole Naltrexone Nevirapine Niacin Nilutamide Nitrofurans Pemoline Phenothiazines Phenytoin Plicamycin Propylthiouracil Rifampin Rosiglitazone Sulfamethoxazole Sulfonamides Tacrine Tenofovir Tizanidine Tolcapone Toremifene Tretinoin Troleandomycin Valproic acid Vitamin A Zidovudine Lamivudine 1.7 Mechanisms of liver injury by some hepatotoxic substances 1.7.1 Mechanism of liver injury by CCl4 CCl4 converts into CCl3 and CCl3OO free radicals in the presence of enzyme CYP2E1, these free radicals then activate the inflammatory and profibrogenic mediators, inflammatory mediators cause lipid peroxidation and profibrogenic mediators cause liver fibrosis which are responsible for the liver injury. CCl4 also acstivates Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1), Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2), Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 these expressions also activate profibrogenic mediators which cause liver fibrosis. Fig-2: Mechanism of liver injury by CCl4 1.7.2 Mechanism of liver injury by acetaminophen In therapeutic dose acetaminophen metabolises by glucuronyl transferases and sulfotransferases to stable metabolites which excreted throughout the body but in over dose acetaminophen metabolises by CYP2E1,CYP3A4 and CYP1A2 to toxic metabolite NAPQI(N-acetyl parabenzo quinine immine). this toxic metabolite covalently binds with the hepatocyte and causes damage to hepatocyte. After binding of NAPQI to hepatocyte there are two possibility, first is stimulation of CD44 receptor expression on T cell which recovers hepatocyte and second is the reduced expression of CD44 receptor on T cell causes hepatocyte apoptosis which is fatal condition to liver. Fig-3: (a)Liver injury by acetaminophen (b) Hepatocyte recovery and apoptosis process. 1.7.3 Mechanism of liver injury by alcohol Fig-4 : Pathways through which alcohol (ethanol) can contribute to apoptosis. 1.8 Hepatoprotection Hepatoprotection is the ability to prevent damage to the liver. One medicine of hepatoprotection is silymarin, derived from Milk Thistle which selectively inhibits formation of leukotrienes by Kupffer cells. 1.8.1 List of Herbs have potentially hepatoprotective constituents (Jia et al, 2011) Almond oil Ganoderma lucidum Glycyrrhiza glabra Arctium lappa Halenia elliptica Astragalus membranaceus Murraya koenigii Nymphaea stellata Ocimum sanctum Paeonia lactiflora Pergularia daemia Picrorhiza kurrooa Phyllanthus amarus Plumbago zeylanica Silybum marianum Scoparia dulcis Salvia miltiorrhiza Amomum xanthoides Astragalus membranaceus Cichorium intybus Curcuma longa Cajanus indicus, Centella asiatica Coccinia indica Brassica, Eclipta Flickingeria fimbriata Flickingeria fimbriata Ganoderma lucidum Glycyrrhiza glabra Halenia elliptica Murraya koenigii Nymphaea stellata Ocimum sanctum Paeonia lactiflora Pergularia daemia Picrorhiza kurrooa Phyllanthus amarus Plumbago zeylanica Silybum marianum Scoparia dulcis Salvia miltiorrhiza Scutellaria baicalensis Schisandra chinensis Table2: Plant tested in animal models for their hepatoprotective activity and found to be active. SBS PGI Balawala, DehradunPage 1

Wireless Area Networks Essay -- Technology Technological Essays

Wireless Area Networks Wireless technology has become an increasingly crucial part of today's world. From health care and retail to academia across the world, wireless systems are improving the rate and ease with which data is sent and received. Two specific examples of the wireless technology used today personally and professionally are local area networks (LAN) and personal area networks (PAN). A wireless local area network, or LAN is a flexible data communications system implemented as an augmentation to, or an alternative for a, wired local area network. These networks rely on electromagnetic airwaves to transmit and receive over a defined area, usually a few hundred feet. (Yahoo-wireless) In most cases, a wireless transmitter will be connected directly to a wired land network using Ethernet cables. Once the network feed has been connected to the transmitter, and a constant power supply is established, a steady stream of radio, or infrared waves with be produced (both are electromagnetic waves). The vast majority of wireless LAN systems tend to rely on radio waves as the carries for their signals, because infrared waves tend to have a shorter distance at which they are able to transmit, and are more easily interrupted. Radio waves, or radio carriers as they are referred to, transfer data through modulations of the carrier signal. The addition of d ata to a radio carrier causes the signal to occupy more than a single frequency. Once data is imprinted onto the radio signal it is a simple reversal of the transmitting process that allows the information to be decoded by a receiving station. (Rho Wireless) Radio waves offer another benefit to the wireless system in... ...ta instantaneous and without the hindrance of cables. Whether or not wireless systems are practical or necessary in a given situation is a matter of personal opinion. However, one cannot dispute the success these systems have had in numerous professional and personal areas and it is very likely that usage of LAN and PAN wireless systems will increase dramatically in the near future as technology continues to advance and evolve. Bibliography Rho Wireless. Wireless Local Area Networks. Oct. 20, 2003. Oct. 25, 2003. www.rhowireless.com/lans.htm Bluetooth Corporation. Bluetooth. 2003. Oct. 20, 2003. www.bluetooth.com Yahoo Wireless. Wireless LAN. 2003. Oct. 20, 2003. www.wireless-lan.com Home Networking Internet Sharing. Home help-802.11b. 2001. Oct. 22, 2003. www.homehelp.com/802.11b/index.asp Wireless Area Networks Essay -- Technology Technological Essays Wireless Area Networks Wireless technology has become an increasingly crucial part of today's world. From health care and retail to academia across the world, wireless systems are improving the rate and ease with which data is sent and received. Two specific examples of the wireless technology used today personally and professionally are local area networks (LAN) and personal area networks (PAN). A wireless local area network, or LAN is a flexible data communications system implemented as an augmentation to, or an alternative for a, wired local area network. These networks rely on electromagnetic airwaves to transmit and receive over a defined area, usually a few hundred feet. (Yahoo-wireless) In most cases, a wireless transmitter will be connected directly to a wired land network using Ethernet cables. Once the network feed has been connected to the transmitter, and a constant power supply is established, a steady stream of radio, or infrared waves with be produced (both are electromagnetic waves). The vast majority of wireless LAN systems tend to rely on radio waves as the carries for their signals, because infrared waves tend to have a shorter distance at which they are able to transmit, and are more easily interrupted. Radio waves, or radio carriers as they are referred to, transfer data through modulations of the carrier signal. The addition of d ata to a radio carrier causes the signal to occupy more than a single frequency. Once data is imprinted onto the radio signal it is a simple reversal of the transmitting process that allows the information to be decoded by a receiving station. (Rho Wireless) Radio waves offer another benefit to the wireless system in... ...ta instantaneous and without the hindrance of cables. Whether or not wireless systems are practical or necessary in a given situation is a matter of personal opinion. However, one cannot dispute the success these systems have had in numerous professional and personal areas and it is very likely that usage of LAN and PAN wireless systems will increase dramatically in the near future as technology continues to advance and evolve. Bibliography Rho Wireless. Wireless Local Area Networks. Oct. 20, 2003. Oct. 25, 2003. www.rhowireless.com/lans.htm Bluetooth Corporation. Bluetooth. 2003. Oct. 20, 2003. www.bluetooth.com Yahoo Wireless. Wireless LAN. 2003. Oct. 20, 2003. www.wireless-lan.com Home Networking Internet Sharing. Home help-802.11b. 2001. Oct. 22, 2003. www.homehelp.com/802.11b/index.asp

The Price of Gasoline Essay -- essays research papers

The Price of Gasoline   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What you are paying for when you buy a gallon of gasoline? Most people complain about the high cost of gasoline, but few understand how the price is calculated. Many people think this cost is for gasoline only, but many other factors determine what you pay at the pumps.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gasoline is a mixture of the lighter liquid hydrocarbons, and used chiefly as a fuel for internal-combustion engines â€Å"Microsoft Encarta,† 2005). Crude oil accounts for nearly 17 percent of the energy consumed in the United States. Gasoline is one of the main products developed from crude oil in the United States. The primary use for gasoline is in automobiles and light trucks. Fuel produced all year round, and is delivered from oil refineries through pipelines to a massive distribution chain serving 167,000 retail stations throughout the United States (â€Å"EIA Brochures†, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The prices paid by consumers at the pump reflect the cost to produce and deliver gasoline to consumers. Included is the cost of crude oil to refiners, refinery- processing costs, marketing and distribution costs, and finally the retail station costs and taxes. Approximately 27 percent of the cost of a gallon of gasoline is federal, state, and local taxes. Another 14 percent is a combination of distribution, marketing, and retail dealer costs and profits. Refining costs and profits account for about 15 percent of the retail price of gasoline. This part varies from region to region due to the different formulations required in different parts of the country (â€Å"EIA Brochures†, 2004) .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The average retail price for gasoline tends to be higher in certain States or regions than in others. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), other factors contribute to regional and local differences in gasoline prices aside from taxes. Special gasolines are required in some areas of the country. Environmental programs, aimed at reducing carbon monoxide, smog, and air toxins, require oxygenated reformulated, and low-volatility (evaporates more slowly) gasoline, which comes at a much higher price (â€Å"EIA Brochures†, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The proximity of refineries to crude oil supplies can be a factor, as well as shipping costs from the refinery to market. In addition, the areas farthest from the Gulf Coast are the source of nearly half of the gasoline produced in the United States, and th... ...ors that go into that price. Whether it’s the taxes charged by federal state, and/or local government, the amount of competition in the region, the region’s proximity to a reliable gasoline supply or even emissions regulations. The price of the fuel we buy is carefully calculated and is subject to many variables. Informed consumers should understand these factors, and keep them in mind each time they fill their tanks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reference California Energy Commission, Media and public communications office, (1994-2008), page updated 03/17/2007 Retrieved 05/19/2007 from http:///www.energy.ca.gov/gasoline_q- and-a.html Energy Information Administration, (2003) California gasoline price study: preliminary findings, Retrieved 5/04/2007 from Http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/feature_articles/2003/cagasoline/cagasoline.pdf Specialized Information Services, A primer on gasoline prices, publication number DOE/EIA-X040, (released June 2007), Retrieved 5/04/2007 from Http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic/brochure/oil_gas/primer/primer.htm Speir, Robert A, Investigation into the current run-up in gasoline, (2004-2008) Retrieved 5/18/2007 from Http://www.iic-inc.com/curr.shtml

Gay marriage in America Essay

America was built on the foundation of equality for all men; however, not until recently have gay and lesbian individuals inherited such civil rights. One of the largest and most pressing issues effecting the gay population is the issue of gay marriage. Marriage is defined as â€Å"the relationship that exists between a husband and wife or a similar relationship between people of the same sex† (Websters). Within the past ten years fifteen states have legalized gay marriage. â€Å"As of Nov. 13, 2013, gay marriage has been legalized in 15 US states (CA, CT, DE, HI, IA, MA, MD, ME, MN, NH, NJ, NY, RI, VT, and WA) and the District of Columbia. 34 states have gay marriage bans through either laws or constitutional amendments or both.† (Procon) Fifteen states legalizing gay marriage in ten years is a strong the accomplishment however, it is still, and continues to be, a very polarizing issue within the country. The passage and acceptance of gay marriage effects many different diversity categories including but not limited to age, religion, and ethnicity and race, and economic status. Age There is a direct correlation between age and the opinion of same sex marriage in America. According to The Pew Research Center, younger Americans are much more accepting and favor same sex unions over older Americans (PewResearchgroup). â€Å"Individuals, born after 1980, favor allowing gays and lesbians to marry legally by a 53%-to-39% margin, while there is less support for same-sex marriage among Baby Boomers –those born 1946 to 1964 — than among younger age groups. Currently, 38% favor allowing gays and lesbians to marry legally while 52% are opposed† (Pew Research) These recent poling numbers would suggest a continuing trend from generation to generation; each new generation is more in favor of same sex marriage than the previous. With more Americans favoring same sex marriage than ever before, one would believe this trend of acceptance of gay marriage will continue over the next generations to come. Religion There is a strong relationship between how religious you see yourself and your views and attitudes toward gay marriage. This idea is not very surprising although very important as it contributes to an understanding of the religious factors that influence opinions about issues directly impacting the gay population. â€Å"Religious attendance is associated with negative attitudes towards gay and lesbians and less support to gay and lesbian civil rights.† (Todd and Ong, 1) There is a positive link between high religious attendance and negative attitudes towards gay marriage; religious attendance is a constant predictor of attitudes towards gay marriage. Within subgroups of religion such as Christian Orthodoxy and conservative Protestant, â€Å"with such an identification, therefore reducing the odds of supporting gay marriage.† (Todd and Ong, 1) Findings suggest the more one identifies and strictly follows their religious views has a direct link to their views on gay marri age. Ethnicity and Race Views and opinions, whether they be negative or positive regarding gay marriage changes and varies within ethnicities and race. African-Americans are generally more opposed to gay marriage versus their white counterparts. â€Å"African-American religiosity is primarily responsible for their conservative views about homosexuality and same-sex marriage.† (Sherkat, Mattias de Vries, and Creek, 81) The factors of race and religion closely relate to each other in this aspect and help to influence each other. As stated above religion has great influence on ones views of same-sex marriage and â€Å"African-Americans have the highest rates of religious participation of any subgroup of the U.S. population† (Sherkat, Mattias de Vries, and Creek 81) â€Å"Between 1998 and 2004, white opposition to same-sex marriage declined to under 54 percent, and it dipped to under 46 percent by 2008. Opposition to same-sex marriage also declined substantially for those of â€Å"other† races, decreasing to under 40 percent in the 2004 survey, and fluctuating between 45percent in 2006 and 43 percent in 2008. Yet, African-American opposition did not decline substantially between 1988 and 2006.† (Sherkat, Mattias de Vries, and Creek 81) Within different races the opinions of gay marriage seem to be changing with the times except for the African-American race. Again, whether it is due to outside factors of religion, culture, or tradition, the African-American race seems to be lagging in the forward movement of gay marriage. Summary As Americans we are guaranteed certain inalienable civil rights and liberties, however as we have seen and know that is not always true. Based on an individual’s sexual preference the ability to marry is not always assured. Factors such as age, religion, ethnicity and race, and economic status greatly influence ones opinion on same sex marriage. Those who are older and more religious oppose gay marriage more than their counterparts who are younger and less religious. Is this to say every older religious individual does not believe in same sex marriage? The answer is no; however, these factors such as age and religiousness tend to follow these trends. There is also variation in opinions within races and ethnicities. White Americans seem to be the most accepting of gay marriage over African-Americans and other races. Discussion The decision on choosing gay marriage legalization and views in America today comes from the realization that there are more gay couples seeking marriage in today’s society than ever before. Gay marriage is no different than heterosexual marriage between a man and a woman with the one obvious exception of gay marriage being between two individuals of the same-sex. Often times, gay marriages are not granted the same civil rights and civil liberties as their heterosexual counterparts. Age, religion, ethnicity and race, and economic status greatly factor into ones positive or negative  views on gay marriage. Throughout this course I have learned that some individuals or even groups of people, such as the gay population, have a very difficult time obtaining the same advantages as their peers. In the past, homosexuality was something to be feared, however, today the public opinion of gay marriage is changing for the better. Stereotypes and prejudices still exist today however they are slowly being phased out by an understanding and more positive attitude towards gay marriage. As of today fifteen states have legalized gay marriage with many other states predicated to soon follow suit. This research has helped me better understand the struggle and plight that the gay community often faces for basic civil rights. Liberties and benefits that I take for granted that come along with marriage are not often extended to the gay community based solely on sexual orientation. I have gained a new appreciation of marriage because I know it is not something that is equal for everyone as well as not obtainable for every individual at this present time. Marriage is not something to be taken for granted because there are those that still cannot share in its wealth. American was built on the foundation of freedom for all regardless of differing diversities; I believe this should hold true for all regardless of sexual orientation. Work Cited â€Å"Gay MarriageProCon.org.† ProConorg Headlines. ProConorg, 11 Nov.2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. Kohut, Andrew. â€Å"Less Opposition to Gay Marriage, Adoption and Military Service.† Pew Research Center for the People and the Press RSS. People Press, 22 Mar. 2006. Web. 06 Nov. 2013 â€Å"Marriage.† Marriage. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. Sherkat, Darren, Kylan Mattais De Vrias, and Stacia Creek. â€Å"Race, Religion, and Opposition to Same-.† Social Science Quarterly (2010): 80-100. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. . Todd, Nathan R., and Katherine S. Ong. â€Å"Political and Theological Orientation as Moderators for the Association between Religious Attendance and Attitudes toward Gay Marriage for White Christians.† Psychology of Religion and Spirtuality 4.1 (2011): 56-70. EBSCO. Web. 2013. .